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Bullying and Harassment
Chapter 2 Bullying and Harassment
Sadly, bullying seems to be a constant concern in our schools. Bullying can impact individual students as well as create an educational environment that makes it difficult to learn. As internet and cell phone use have increased exponentially, so has the opportunity for cyber-bullying or cyber-intimidation.
This chapter will explore the issue of bullying in the schools, in general. We will discuss the dynamics of bullying and the impact of bullying on individuals and on the school community. We will also explore the growing problem of cyber-bullying and the differences and similarities between it and face-to-face bullying.
Before heading into a discussion of bullying, it should be noted that sexual harassment in school is sometimes considered a form of bullying (Ashbaugh & Cornell, 2008; Brown et al., 2007). Indeed, both terms refer to harming a peer or subordinate at school or work. Distinguishing between the terms is important because they have different definitions and are regulated by different laws. Too often, the more comfortable term “bullying” is used to describe sexual harassment, obscuring the role of gender and sex in these incidents (Stein & Mennemeier, 2011). Schools are likely to promote bullying prevention while ignoring or downplaying sexual harassment (Gruber & Fineran, 2007). Sexual harassment and bullying are also regulated by different laws. Sexual harassment is a form of sex discrimination under Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972. Because Title IX is a federal law, all schools that receive federal funding are regulated by it. In contrast, no federal law exists for bullying.
Bullying is perhaps the most underreported safety problem in schools. Bullying has often been considered a rite of passage and relatively harmless. In fact, some have argued that it builds character in young children. We now know, however, that it can have long-standing impacts on the victim, the bully, and the campus community. Extensive research done in Europe has shown that without intervention, bullies are more likely to develop a criminal record, and victims continue to have psychological problems.
Bullying happens not only in school yards and on the way to and from school, but also in the hallways and classrooms of our schools. While bullying tends to happen most in elementary school, it continues in middle and high school. Entering students, such as freshmen in high school and children who have just moved to town, are especially vulnerable. Administrators and teachers need to recognize and intervene when they encounter bullying or the impact of bullying. We should not assume that bullying takes place off campus and is beyond our purview.
Bullying has been studied extensively in many countries over the last twenty years. Even so, it is hard to estimate the extent of school-age bullying, as studies have used different definitions and research strategies. The first studies were conducted in the 1980s by Olweus (1993) in Norway and Sweden; he found that close to 15% of the youth in his study had experienced bullying problems in the last year.
The National Center for Educational Statistics reports that about 1 in 5 students (20.8%) report being bullied. However, rates of reported bullying vary across studies (from 9% to 98%). A meta-analysis of 80 studies analyzing bullying involvement rates (for both bullying others and being bullied) for 12–18-year-old students reported a mean prevalence rate of 35% for traditional bullying involvement and 15% for cyber-bullying involvement (Modecki, Minchin, Harbaugh, Guerra, & Runions, 2014).
Part of the difficulty in discerning the extent of bullying is the reluctance of victims and witnesses to report the problem to adults in their lives. According to the findings of one study, 64% of children who were bullied did not report it (Petrosina, Guckenburg, DeVoe, & Hanson, 2010). Researchers have discovered that students do not believe that adults can help (e.g., Hoover, Oliver, & Hazler, 1992; Whitney & Smith, 1991). Victims gave a variety of reasons for being unwilling to talk with an adult about the bullying: fear of retaliation, sense of shame for not standing up for oneself, fear that they won’t be believed, not wanting to worry adults, not believing that anything would change, believing the adult’s advice would make things worse, or belief that being a “snitch” would be worse.
Students who witnessed bullying also feared retaliation but, in addition, there may be a diffusion of responsibility, with the assumption that they were not individually responsible for stopping the bullying.
Given technological advances, cyber-bullying is a concern for students, faculty, and administrators. Certainly, face-to-face bullying continues, but we also need to confront the increasing prevalence of bullying through cell phones, emails, and social networking sites.
Because the research on cyber-bullying is new, it is fraught with many of the same problems as research on face-to-face bullying. Estimating the prevalence of cyber-bullying is especially difficult because of the variety of techniques used for measuring it. However, the research to date suggests a range of 5%–74%. Obviously, cyber-bullying should be a major concern for educators. Alarmingly, Patchin and Hinduja (2016) found that the percentage of individuals who have experienced cyberbullying at some point in their lifetimes has nearly doubled, rising from 18% to 34% between 2007 and 2016.
Cyber-bullying happens largely outside of school. But these out-of-school interactions often lead to in-school altercations. This dynamic diminishes the quality of the learning environment and affects students, teachers, and administrators (Pelfrey & Weber, 2015).
As with sexual harassment, it is important to begin our understanding with a shared definition of bullying. While researchers (e.g., Farrington, 1993, Smith, Morita, Junger-Tas, Olweus, Catanano, & Slee, 1999) have not agreed on one clear definition, they seem to agree on these criteria. To be considered bullying, three things need to be present: behavior that is intended to harm, the repetition of acts over time, and the presence of an imbalance of power. Let’s consider each of these components in turn.
Olweus (1993) defines bullying as behavior intended to inflict “injury or discomfort.” Bullying requires repeated, physical, verbal or psychological attacks or intimidation aimed at a person who cannot easily defend him/herself because of size or strength, or because s/he is outnumbered or less psychologically resilient (Smith & Brian, 2000).
Bullying includes assault, tripping, intimidation, rumor spreading and isolation, demands for money, destruction of property, theft of valued possessions, destruction of another’s work, and name-calling. In the United States, other behaviors, such as sexual harassment, exclusion based on perceived sexual orientation, and hazing (which is often associated with athletic teams and club membership), are also considered a form of bullying.
It is important to recognize that the behavior by itself is not the key to the definition of bullying. The intent to harm is an important part of the definition. The motivation and social context in which the behavior occurs need to be considered. For example, someone may hit another in self-defense, or someone may exclude another person based on a concern for safety. Like hostile environment sexual harassment, bullying behaviors become bullying when they are repeated (unless the behavior is particularly egregious).
It is important to recognize that the behavior by itself is not the key to the definition of bullying. The intent to harm is an important part of the definition. The motivation and social context in which the behavior occurs need to be considered. For example, someone may hit another in self-defense, or someone may exclude another person based on a concern for safety. Like hostile environment sexual harassment, bullying behaviors become bullying when they are repeated (unless the behavior is particularly egregious).
The third criterion in the definition of bullying is the presence of a power imbalance. This power imbalance can take on many manifestations. Power can be defined by a difference in size or in numbers. It can also be defined by social or actual status differences. In addition, power can be defined by psychological differences, where the one who is being bullied does not feel psychologically able to stand up for him/herself.
This last criterion is a difficult one to ascertain at times. In many instances, it is easy to identify the power imbalance. A child is being hit by a much larger child or a subordinate is being chastised repeatedly by a superior. However, it is not always easy to spot a power imbalance. We have all seen children on the playground pushing each other in play, as well as colleagues bantering with put-downs as part of the conversation. These behaviors can and often should be perceived as innocent interactions between equals. In observing interactions in schools, it is important for administrators and teachers to pay attention to more subtle power imbalances.
In review, bullying is defined by a desire to hurt along with a hurtful action + (usually) repeated actions + a use of power.
Scenario: Chelsea is a new student in 7th grade at the local junior high school. After one month, she is having a hard time fitting in with the other students. She didn’t know any of the students when she first attended the school, and the students she met were not particularly friendly. She didn’t have any significant problems, however, until one day in her math class, a popular girl called her a name under her breath and everyone in the class laughed. Since that time, Chelsea has been taunted when she walks into the lunchroom, and no one will let her sit at their table. Chelsea never experienced bullying at her other school and she wasn’t sure what to do. She began to miss a lot of school, complaining of stomachaches and nausea. When her parents began to insist on her seeing a doctor, Chelsea finally told them what was happening at school.
- What behaviors and attitudes are occurring that make this a bullying scenario?
2. What power imbalance exists in this scenario?
3. What might have been done to avoid this situation?
As with face-to-face bullying, it is important that a common definition for cyber-bullying be developed. The definition of bullying provided for face-to-face bullying applies to the definition of cyber-bullying, but is extended through the method of delivery. Kowalski, Limber, and Agatston (2008) provide the following definition: “Cyber bullying, broadly defined, refers to bullying that involves the use of email, instant messaging, text digital imaging messages and digital images sent via cellular phone, Web pages, Web logs (blogs), and other information technologies” (p. 42).
One distinction regarding the definition of cyber-bullying is critical. A prominent Internet site hosted by Wired Safety asserts that cyber-bullying occurs between peers/minors and that when adults are perpetrators, the bullying would be better labeled as cyber-harassment or cyber-stalking (Aftab, 2006).
Cyber-bullying can be direct or indirect (or, cyber-bullying by proxy). Direct cyber-bullying can include such elements as insulting emails or instant messages. Cyber-bullying by proxy is more insidious and can include behaviors such as using a victim’s account to send hateful messages to all of the victim’s friends, or posting victims’ contact information on child molester discussion boards. Cyber-bullying is especially troubling as: it can occur at any time of the day or night; messages and images can be distributed quickly to a wide variety of audiences; and children can be anonymous when cyber-bullying, which makes it difficult and sometimes impossible to trace them.
Sexual harassment is acknowledged to be a prevalent aspect of cyber-bullying, although it is not generally reported separately (Shariff & Strong-Wilson, 2005). Researchers have argued that the sexual (and potentially embarrassing) nature of cyber-harassment results in its being underreported in comparison with other forms of abuse (Bhat, 2008).
Patchin and Hinduja conduct yearly surveys of middle and high school students through the Cyberbullying Research Center. They identify the following cyberbullying behavior that students have encountered in 2016: mean or hateful comments online, rumors online, mean names or comments of a sexual nature, threat to hurt, threat to hurt through a text message, pretending to be the victim online, mean name or comments based on race or ethnicity, posted mean or hurtful video, and created mean or hurtful webpage.
Many have begun to see bullying as a major cause of suicide and school violence. Although bullying and cyber-bullying incidents may certainly have contributed to acts of violence or suicide, research reminds us that the link is more tenuous than it looks on the surface. We are wise to remember that other issues, including alcohol abuse, depression, and access to firearms are also contributing factors in youth suicide and violence. As cyber-bullying is one form of bullying, it is useful to review what types of bullying can occur, as well as the methods that are used.
Willard (2006) provides a list of types of cyber-bullying behaviors: flaming, cyber-harassment, denigration, impersonation, outing, trickery, and exclusion. Kowalski et al. (2008) add happy slapping.
- Flaming is a brief, heated exchange between two or more individuals which usually occurs in a public setting, such as a chat room. When insulting remarks begun to fly between the participants, a flame war has begun. While flaming may appear between equals, flame wars often bring in others and a sense of imbalance can develop quickly.
- Cyber-harassment involves offensive messages that are sent to a victim repeatedly. This type of cyber-bullying is usually private, sent via emails or text messages. Text wars are one form of cyber-harassment; one or several perpetrators send hundreds of text messages to a single victim.
- Denigration refers to sharing information that is negative and/or untrue. This can include behaviors such as sending mass emails with altered or actual photos of victims and the creation of online “slam books” where others are invited to write nasty comments about a victim.
- Impersonation occurs when someone is able to either log in on a victim’s account or create a username that is similar to the victims. Examples of this include: sending email or instant messages to others acting as the victim and accessing a victim’s profile on a social networking site and changing the profile information to something inappropriate.
- Outing is sharing information that was meant to be private with a wide audience. An example of this would be forwarding a private email to a large group of mutual acquaintances.
- Sexting, the act of sending sexually explicit pictures via text messages, has become more common than one would expect. Even politicians partake in it! While most sexting by youth and adults is meant to be exchanged with one individual, outing such pictures to a broader audience is increasingly becoming a concern for our youth and politicians alike. Most troubling is that once a picture or video is shared in another medium by another person, it is not easily erased. A picture intended for one person may become a picture that is shared forever with everyone with internet access.
- Trickery involves tricking someone to share personal information with the perpetrator with the intent to share that private information.
- A sense of exclusion is difficult for children and adolescents. Developmentally, it is important to feel like one belongs to a group. In the cyber world, exclusion can include not being invited or allowed into a password protected online community or being knocked off someone’s buddy list. It can even include not responding quickly to an email or instant message.
- Happy Slapping is a relatively new phenomenon and is potentially physically dangerous. This occurs when a group of individuals walk up and slap or assault someone and capture the event on video or a photo and then distribute it widely via emails and/or You Tube. Victims can be strangers or known. Please note: Other technologies may enable different types of cyber bullying.
Scenario: Greg is a fairly popular 10th-grader and frequently communicates with his friends via text messages. He has been learning how to use the Photoshop software and takes a picture of a very popular girl, Stacey, and imposes her head on a picture of a topless model he finds on the internet. He text messages this picture to his friends late at night. By morning, the picture has been forwarded to countless cell phones and has been posted to Stacey’s Facebook profile. Stacey is mortified. Her parents are on their way to the school to talk with the principal.
- What kind of cyber-bullying has occurred?
2. What harm, if any, has been done to Stacey?
3. What is the school’s responsibility in this situation?
As with face-to-face bullying, it is important that a common definition for cyber-bullying be developed. The definition of bullying provided for face-to-face bullying applies to the definition of cyber-bullying, but is extended through the method of delivery. Kowalski, Limber, and Agatston (2008) provide the following definition: “Cyber bullying, broadly defined, refers to bullying that involves the use of email, instant messaging, text digital imaging messages and digital images sent via cellular phone, Web pages, Web logs (blogs), and other information technologies” (p. 42).
One distinction regarding the definition of cyber-bullying is critical. A prominent Internet site hosted by Wired Safety asserts that cyber-bullying occurs between peers/minors and that when adults are perpetrators, the bullying would be better labeled as cyber-harassment or cyber-stalking (Aftab, 2006).
Cyber-bullying can be direct or indirect (or, cyber-bullying by proxy). Direct cyber-bullying can include such elements as insulting emails or instant messages. Cyber-bullying by proxy is more insidious and can include behaviors such as using a victim’s account to send hateful messages to all of the victim’s friends, or posting victims’ contact information on child molester discussion boards. Cyber-bullying is especially troubling as: it can occur at any time of the day or night; messages and images can be distributed quickly to a wide variety of audiences; and children can be anonymous when cyber-bullying, which makes it difficult and sometimes impossible to trace them.
Sexual harassment is acknowledged to be a prevalent aspect of cyber-bullying, although it is not generally reported separately (Shariff & Strong-Wilson, 2005). Researchers have argued that the sexual (and potentially embarrassing) nature of cyber-harassment results in its being underreported in comparison with other forms of abuse (Bhat, 2008).
Patchin and Hinduja conduct yearly surveys of middle and high school students through the Cyberbullying Research Center. They identify the following cyberbullying behavior that students have encountered in 2016: mean or hateful comments online, rumors online, mean names or comments of a sexual nature, threat to hurt, threat to hurt through a text message, pretending to be the victim online, mean name or comments based on race or ethnicity, posted mean or hurtful video, and created mean or hurtful webpage.
Many have begun to see bullying as a major cause of suicide and school violence. Although bullying and cyber-bullying incidents may certainly have contributed to acts of violence or suicide, research reminds us that the link is more tenuous than it looks on the surface. We are wise to remember that other issues, including alcohol abuse, depression, and access to firearms are also contributing factors in youth suicide and violence. As cyber-bullying is one form of bullying, it is useful to review what types of bullying can occur, as well as the methods that are used.
Willard (2006) provides a list of types of cyber-bullying behaviors: flaming, cyber-harassment, denigration, impersonation, outing, trickery, and exclusion. Kowalski et al. (2008) add happy slapping.
- Flaming is a brief, heated exchange between two or more individuals which usually occurs in a public setting, such as a chat room. When insulting remarks begun to fly between the participants, a flame war has begun. While flaming may appear between equals, flame wars often bring in others and a sense of imbalance can develop quickly.
- Cyber-harassment involves offensive messages that are sent to a victim repeatedly. This type of cyber-bullying is usually private, sent via emails or text messages. Text wars are one form of cyber-harassment; one or several perpetrators send hundreds of text messages to a single victim.
- Denigration refers to sharing information that is negative and/or untrue. This can include behaviors such as sending mass emails with altered or actual photos of victims and the creation of online “slam books” where others are invited to write nasty comments about a victim.
- Impersonation occurs when someone is able to either log in on a victim’s account or create a username that is similar to the victims. Examples of this include: sending email or instant messages to others acting as the victim and accessing a victim’s profile on a social networking site and changing the profile information to something inappropriate.
- Outing is sharing information that was meant to be private with a wide audience. An example of this would be forwarding a private email to a large group of mutual acquaintances.
- Sexting, the act of sending sexually explicit pictures via text messages, has become more common than one would expect. Even politicians partake in it! While most sexting by youth and adults is meant to be exchanged with one individual, outing such pictures to a broader audience is increasingly becoming a concern for our youth and politicians alike. Most troubling is that once a picture or video is shared in another medium by another person, it is not easily erased. A picture intended for one person may become a picture that is shared forever with everyone with internet access.
- Trickery involves tricking someone to share personal information with the perpetrator with the intent to share that private information.
- A sense of exclusion is difficult for children and adolescents. Developmentally, it is important to feel like one belongs to a group. In the cyber world, exclusion can include not being invited or allowed into a password protected online community or being knocked off someone’s buddy list. It can even include not responding quickly to an email or instant message.
- Happy Slapping is a relatively new phenomenon and is potentially physically dangerous. This occurs when a group of individuals walk up and slap or assault someone and capture the event on video or a photo and then distribute it widely via emails and/or You Tube. Victims can be strangers or known. Please note: Other technologies may enable different types of cyber bullying.
Scenario: Greg is a fairly popular 10th-grader and frequently communicates with his friends via text messages. He has been learning how to use the Photoshop software and takes a picture of a very popular girl, Stacey, and imposes her head on a picture of a topless model he finds on the internet. He text messages this picture to his friends late at night. By morning, the picture has been forwarded to countless cell phones and has been posted to Stacey’s Facebook profile. Stacey is mortified. Her parents are on their way to the school to talk with the principal.
- What kind of cyber-bullying has occurred?
2. What harm, if any, has been done to Stacey?
3. What is the school’s responsibility in this situation?
Next we will look at a variety of methods that are being used to cyber-bully. We should be aware that as technological advances continue, we will need to educate ourselves about new forms of technology that may be used for cyber-bullying also. It is particularly difficult to even claim to be able to name all of the technologies that can be used for cyber-bullying. This list will likely be obsolete before you finishing reading it! Because of this, it is useful to make a commitment to pay attention to the technology that our students are using. Be curious. Ask questions. Do this not only to understand how these technologies could be misused and abused but also to learn more about our students’ daily lives and what is important to them.
Teens’ use of technology has grown exponientially. Patchin and Hinduja’s 2016 survey of teens showed that more than 95% of teens used cellphones to text, connect to social media such as Facebook, Twitter, and Snapchat, and to play online games. The researchers also noted that more than 70% of teens play online games in which they interact with others–either on a computer or cell phone or through a game console (e.g., Xbox Live). With the almost ubiquitous use of technology in a teen’s life, the opportunity for cyberbullying also grows exponentially.
Before we describe technologies currently in use, please be aware that all of these technologies are now more and more accessible through portable devices such as cell phones, netbooks, laptops, and tablets. Many of these technologies used to be available on a desktop computer that was stationary and could be situated in an open environment like a family room or a classroom. Now students have access to these technologies at almost any time and in almost any place, through a variety of devices. There is often no escaping our connection to technology. Emails: Most of us are now familiar with email communication. It’s the most used form of technology communication among adults. Because of its ease of use, emails can easily be used for high-impact cyber-bullying. Not only can insulting information about a victim be sent via email to large groups of people, but perpetrators can also sign up for free emails impersonating a victim. Cyber-bullying via email can also take place when a perpetrator signs a victim up for pornography or marketing lists, causing the victim to be inundated with offensive or irritating emails. Although email isn’t used by teens as much as other forms of technology on a weekly basis, it nevertheless offers a method by which cyberbullying can take place.
Instant Messaging (IM): Teenagers are the most frequent users of Instant Messaging software. Instant Messaging takes place between individuals who are on each other’s “friends” or contact list in real time on the internet. Flaming and impersonation are often conducted via IM. IM technology is embedded in many social media platforms and can be accessed easily through a person’s smartphone.
Text Messaging: As most of us know, teenagers are highly skilled at text messaging each other. Text, video, and photo messages can be sent to individuals or to large groups with as much ease as an email and so pose a particularly high likelihood of misuse. Many who have text messaging capabilities on the phone have unlimited service, and in addition to the potential harm caused by the messages, there could be additional costs that are incurred, which can also be seen as a form of harassment. New technologies are being invented all the time. One text messaging application, SnapChat, is especially worrisome. Users of SnapChat can send a picture via text messaging. When the recipient receives and opens the text, the picture will appear but will disappear after six seconds. Youth often feel confident that a sexually explicit photo that they send will be seen only by the recipient they intended and will disappear into the ether after that. However, such photos have appeared on other sites or have been forwarded to others via text message. One can screen capture the pictures on one’s phone, and because most people do not erase pictures from their phone, photos are sometimes accessed that way.
Social Networking Sites: The FBI internet site on Social Networking (2008) defines social networking sites as “websites that encourage people to post profiles of themselves–complete with pictures, interests, and even journals–so they can meet like-minded friends. Most offer chat rooms. Most sites are free; some restrict membership by age.” Cyber-bullying can occur in many ways on these sites. “Friends” can comment on anything posted on the site. Public comments, videos, and photos can be uploaded to an individual’s profile without permission from the individual. Social networking sites can also be places from which victims of cyber-bullying are excluded (e.g., by not being accepted as a “friend”). Social networking sites used to be accessible only via computers, but mobile applications are now available, again making these technologies more consistently available.
Chat Rooms: These are websites where individuals with like interests can chat with each other via typing in real time. (Some sites have video and audio capabilities now as well.) Many of the types of cyber-bullying can easily occur in chat rooms, for example: flaming, denigration, and exclusion. Because it is easy to make up an identity in a chat room, other users may become angry and retaliatory when they realize they have been duped. In addition, cyber-stalkers and sexual predators are known to fabricate their identities in chat rooms to gain information and access to victims. Though not as popular as it used to be, the chatroom application Chat-roulette, is a good example of the kind of chat rooms we need to be aware of as educators. Video users enter the site and as in roulette, one has videos of other participants spin into your viewing pane. One can choose to stay in “chat” with someone or move to the next person. Nudity and those engaged in sexual activity is not unusual on this site. Even without the sexual aspects of a site like this, one could be flamed, denigrated, or excluded easily in this setting.
Internet Gaming: Multiplayer Online gaming can occur within video game systems or through websites. In these games, frustrated, anonymous players can often become threatening, abusive, and demeaning. Cyberbullying in gaming is usually referred to as “griefing.” Griefing can occur through instant messaging or through written or verbal chat in these games. Players can also block other players from games, leading students to feel excluded.
Online Slam Books, Bash Boards, Internet Polling Sites: These are websites that are created to allow individuals to post comments, personal information, photos, and videos, and are often used to humiliate a victim. Other methods (e.g., emails, instant messages, social networking sites) are typically used to “advertise” these boards.
As is becoming apparent, there are similarities and differences in face-to-face bullying and cyber-bullying. They share the basic definition: harmful behavior, a power imbalance, and behavior that is repeated.
The dynamic of the power imbalance can be very different in cyber-bullying, however. Individuals who in face-to-face interactions would wield little power may find themselves becoming very powerful in the cyber world. They can be anonymous and harass others with little fear of repercussions.
Because of the scope and “permanence” of cyber-bullying, the concept of actions being “repeated” can also take on new dimensions. Damaging emails that are sent to dozens of recipients can represent being victimized a hundred times. The presence of a negative comment on a social networking site or an instant message that can be accessed over and over again, can also lead to the sense of continual victimization.
Cyber-bullying is different from face-to-face bullying in several other ways. The anonymity afforded by cyber-bullying methods means that a victim may not know or be able to avoid the perpetrator. Unlike in face-to-face bullying, a victim can always be subject to an attack, not only at school, but virtually any time and any place. Unlike face-to-face bullying, cyber-bullying usually occurs outside of school, which may limit a school’s ability to intervene.
Fears of retribution often discourage victims of face-to-face bullying to report the behaviors, and this is true of cyber-bullying also. Victims of cyber-bullying can also fear that access to technology will be taken away from them if they report the bullying. Given that cell phones and computer communication may be a strong link to a teen’s social life, this fear may persuade a teen to endure the abuse far longer than he or she would endure face-to-face bullying.
Perhaps the biggest difference in cyber-bullying is the disinhibition that occurs because of the physical distance and the veil of anonymity. Social psychologists have long reported that we are willing to do things when we think we are not being seen or not known (e.g., Williams, Harkins, & Latane, 1981). Even if the cyber-bullying behavior is not anonymous, Carrington (2006) asserts, perpetrators can bully because of a “cloak of invisibility.”
Some of this is likely due to the fact that a perpetrator cannot ascertain the impact of the behavior on the victim. Face-to-face, a potential bully might see that the potential victim is not taking his/her comment as a joke and stop the behavior. In cyberspace, this contextual information is lost and miscommunication can easily lead to cyber-bullying.
There is some evidence that text messaging is especially conducive to this sense of disinhibition. Bryant, Sanders-Jackson, and Smallwood (2006), in a survey of teens, found that while 92% of them used text messaging to keep in touch with friends, 60% of them used it to play a trick on someone and 42% used it to write something that they wouldn’t say in person.
Students are especially unlikely to report cyber-bullying. Thus, it is useful to look for these warning signs of being bullied online: 1) Avoiding computer, cell phone and other technologies; 2) Withdrawing from family and friends or being reluctant to attend school or social events they used to enjoy; 3) Avoiding conversations about technology use; and/or 4) Depressive behavior, such as feelings of sadness, increased worrying, grades declining, lack of eating or sleeping.
Cyber-bullying also challenges school districts and administrators as they work to prevent and respond to incidents appropriately. This is especially true in regard to regulating speech or behavior protected by the First Amendment. Many administrators are concerned about litigation concerning the violation of First Amendment rights. Court cases (e.g., Hazelwood v. Kuhlmeier) have established that schools are responsible for balancing First Amendment rights with the obligation to create a safe environment for students (Pelfrey & Weber, 2015).
Research has been conducted on the characteristics of children involved in bullying, including the bullies, the victims, and the bystanders. This exercise will explore those characteristics, as well as examine the impact of bullying on all who are involved.
Olweus (1993) found in his research that bullied children displayed one or more of the following characteristics: 1) quiet, cautious or sensitive; 2) insecure, have little confidence, and have low self-esteem; 3) have few friends and are socially isolated; 4) may be afraid of being hurt; 5) may be anxious or depressed; 6) are physically weaker than their peers (especially for boys) and 7) find it easier to be with adults.
Other research in the United States has found similar results. Swearer, Grills, Hay, and Cary (2004) report that anxiety, depression, and poor self-esteem may provide indicators that a child may be an easy target for bullying.
Chapter 2 – Bullying & Cyber-Intimidation
Exercise 20 – Understanding the Dynamics of Bullying
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Research has also found that there are groups of children that are more likely to be bullied than others: 1) those with learning disabilities (e.g., Martlew & Hodgson, 1991; Thompson, Whitney, & Smith, 1993); 2) those with ADHD (Unnever & Cornell, 2003); 3) children with physical disabilities or illnesses (e.g., Dawkins, 1996; Yude, Goodman, & McConanchie, 1998); 4) those who are overweight (e.g., Jannsen, Craig, Boyce, & Pickett, 2004); 5) those who are gay, lesbian, bisexual, or questioning their sexuality or those who exhibit incongruent gender characteristics, i.e. feminine boys and masculine girls (e.g., Eisenberg & Aalsma, 2005; Harris Interactive & GLSEN, 2005).
Olweus (1993a) has found in his research that those who bully also have characteristics similar to one another. They tend to: 1) have dominant personalities; 2) have a temper, be easily frustrated and impulsive; 3) have positive attitudes about violence; 4) have difficulty following rules; 5) show little empathy or compassion and 6) be good at talking themselves out of difficult situations. Recent research (Sherr & Larson, 2010) indicates that bullying based on one’s immigration history, ethnicity, and race seems to have increased. Children who have recently moved to the country as well as those whose parents are immigrants report being bullied frequently. Interestingly, those children who were born in another country are also more likely than other students to bully. There is speculation that the pain of immigration, and from being bullied, could lead to these students feeling as if they need to protect themselves and/or their group, resulting in their bullying others.
Chapter 2 – Bullying & Cyber-Intimidation
Exercise 20 – Understanding the Dynamics of Bullying
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In racially mixed schools, those students in the minority racial or ethnic group tend to fall victim to bullying more often than those from the majority group. Differences in social rules, language, dress, and religious practice may contribute to a misunderstanding between cultures and result in bullying behaviors. In popular culture, bullies are often portrayed as children with low self-esteem and poor social skills; but the research actually finds that bullies tend to be less anxious, depressed and lonely than their peers (e.g., Juvenonen et al., 2003). In fact, bullies are often the most popular students in the school and have at least a small group of friends who support their bullying. Bullies also tend to be good at reading and manipulating other children’s mental states (e.g., Sutton, Smith & Swettenham, 1999a and 1999b).
There is another type of bully that has been recognized. They are sometimes called the “provocative” or “bully/victim.” These children are bullied, but they, in turn, also bully other children. Research (e.g., Juvenonen et al., 2003) shows that these children are likely to have the most difficulties. These are children who are avoided by most of the children in the school, and school administrators and teachers tend to see them as some of the most difficult children to work with.
They are also the most likely to display or report suicidal ideation or behavior (Kim, Koh, & Leventhal, 2005). Researchers (e.g., Anderson et al., 2001; Fein et al., 2002) note in their respective studies of school violence (including those involving school shootings) that the violent perpetrators were also bullied. Anderson and his colleagues (2001) assert that these children “may represent the ‘provocative’ or ‘aggressive’ victims….who often retaliate in an aggressive manner in response to being bullied” (p. 2702).
Also involved in and impacted by bullying are those who are the bystanders. Olweus (1999) offers that bullying is actually a group phenomenon and is not just between two individuals. He proposes the concept of a Bullying Circle, which is covered in the handout.
The impact of bullying can be far-reaching and disturbing. Children who are bullied display both psychological and physical symptoms, including anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, suicidal thoughts and behaviors, and headaches, stomach pains, and a poor appetite (e.g., Graham & Schuster, 2003). They have more problems than their peers in their academic lives also, exhibiting high absenteeism, a dislike for school, and lower grades (e.g., Rigby, 1996).
Because the studies that have been conducted so far are correlational studies, we cannot say that these symptoms are caused by bullying, but it makes sense that the stress of bullying would at a minimum contribute to these symptoms. Sadly, the impact of bullying does not necessarily stop after the bullying stops. Several researchers (e.g., Roth, Coles, & Heimberg, 2002) found that children who suffered bullying in their childhood were more likely to be depressed and anxious in adulthood.
Children who are bullied do not often talk to adults in their lives about the bullying. They are most likely to talk with friends about the bullying (e.g., Rigby, 2002), and are more likely to talk with an adult at home than with one in a school setting (e.g., Boulton & Underwood, 1992). For school administrators and teachers who want to help, this is a concern. Students report that they lack confidence in the ability of school officials to respond well to bullying incidents. In one study (Hoover, Oliver, & Hazler, 1992), only 6% thought that school staff handled these situations well. One student (cited in Kowalski et. al., 2008) said that staff either under- or overreacted to bullying.
Those who bully are also of concern. Studies (e.g., Olweus et al., 2007) have found that there seem to be three main reasons why boys bully: 1) a need for dominance and power, 2) satisfaction in causing suffering, 3) being rewarded for the behavior (e.g., money taken from the victim or high social status). Bullies also tend to exhibit family factors, such as a lack of warmth, lack of supervision, and the use of physical punishment in the home (e.g., Olweus, 1993a). A major concern is the research that shows that bullying behavior is associated with ongoing antisocial and violent behavior in childhood and adulthood.
Conclusion: As with sexual harassment, the cost of cyber-bullying and cyber-intimidation is high. It poisons the academic and work environments and can cause great harm to individuals and the community. Chapter three will discuss strategies for preventing and stopping cyber-bullying in our schools. Finally, specific recommendations for prevention and intervention for sexual harassment, bullying, and cyber-bullying will follow.
